Журнал «Foods and Raw Materials»

The research featured fortified fermented drinks from pasteurized buttermilk with such natural additives as Jerusalem artichoke syrup and beetroot dietary fiber. The optimal symbiotic culture included Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus: it provided rapid fermentation and a creamy, homogeneous structure with delta pH time = 3.5 h. Jerusalem artichoke syrup was added in amounts of 3, 6, and 9%. Its optimal share proved to be 6% by the weight of the finished product. Beet dietary fiber was added in amounts of 2, 4, and 6%, where the optimal amount was 4%. A higher percentage affected the consistency of the finished product but not its clotting or taste. The experimental drinks were produced by the tank method and fermented at 42 ± 2°C until dense clotting and titratable acidity = 72 ± 2°T. The finished product was stored at 4 ± 2°C. The shelf-life was 12 days for the sample with Jerusalem artichoke syrup and 14 days for the drink fortified with beetroot fiber. The physical and chemical indicators showed that the energy value of the fortified fermented buttermilk drinks was by 45.3% lower compared to conventional fermented dairy drinks. As a result of research, it has been established that the use of plant components, namely Jerusalem artichoke syrup and beet dietary fiber in the production technology of fermented milk drink from buttermilk makes it possible to obtain a finished product with improved consumer properties.

Flavonoids are plant polyphenols that exhibit biological activity with antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, and anticarcinogenic effects. The medicinal plants of Kuzbass have high contents of flavonoids and other polyphenolic compounds. Therefore, they can be used in medicinal preparations to prevent or treat serious diseases. We studied the following plants collected in Kuzbass: common thyme (Thymus vulgaris Linn., leaves and stems), woolly burdock (Arctium tomentosum Mill., roots), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L., leaves and stems), common lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis L., leaves and stems), common yarrow (Achillea millefolium L., leaves and stems), red clover (Trifolium pratense L., leaves and stems), common ginseng (Panax ginseng, roots), sweetvetch (Hedysarum neglectum Ledeb., roots), and cow parsnip (Heracleum sibiricum L., inflorescences, leaves, and stems). To extract flavonoids, we used ethanol at concentrations of 40, 55, 60, 70, and 75%. Spectrophotometry was used to determine total flavonoids, while high-performance liquid chromatography was employed to study the qualitative and quantitative composition of the extracts. The highest yield of flavonoids was found in H. sibiricum leaves (at all concentrations except 70%), followed by the 55% and 70% ethanol extracts of T. vulgaris leaves and stems, as well as the 75% ethanol extract of A. millefolium leaves and stems. Thus, these plants have the greatest potential in being used in medicines. High-performance liquid chromatography showed the highest contents of polyphenolic compounds in the samples of P. officinalis, A. millefolium, T. vulgaris, and T. pratense. Our results can be used in further research to produce new medicinal preparations based on the medicinal plants of Kuzbass.

Wound and burn healing is a complex physiological process that can be facilitated by medications based on marine collagen. In this regard, biomass of the Aurelia aurita jellyfish is a promising alternative source of medical collagen. As the global incidence of burns and wounds continues to grow, new healing methods have become a relevant area of medical science. This study featured acetic acid as a means of marine collagen extraction from A. aurita biomass. The physical and chemical properties of jellyfish collagen were determined gravimetrically and included such indicators as water solubility and water holding capacity. The molecular weight was defined by gel electrophoresis. The spectral studies relied on the method of UV spectroscopy. The regenerative experiments included such parameters as cytotoxicity, antioxidant properties, adhesion, and wound healing rate, as well as a quantitative PCR analysis. The optimal conditions for maximal collagen yield were as follows: 0.5 M acetic acid and 48 h extraction time. However, the collagen yield was very low (≤ 0.0185%). The high water holding capacity showed good prospects for A. aurita collagen to be used as hemostatic sponge. The acid-soluble collagen sample had a molecular weight of 100–115 kDa, which made it possible to classify it as type I. A. aurita jellyfish collagen revealed no cytotoxic properties; it had no effect on adhesion, migration, and proliferation of keratinocytes, neither did it affect the expression of cell differentiation markers. The wound healing model proved that the marine collagen had regenerative properties as it was able to increase the wound healing rate by 24.5%. Therefore, collagen extracted from the biomass of A. aurita jellyfish d emonstrated good p rospects for cosmetology and regenerative medicine.

Orange seeds, often overlooked as waste, have hidden potential since fiber derived from them contains numerous biochemical substances that can enhance the nutritional value of food. We aimed to investigate the impact of pomelo seed fiber on the biscuit dough’s properties (starch and gluten), physicochemical characteristics, and biochemistry, as well as the product’s shelf life. We studied three types of samples: control (no dietary fiber), biscuits with dietary fiber from pomelo (Citrus maxima (Brum.) Merr.) seeds, and biscuits with wheat germ fiber. Scanning electron microscopy was employed to analyze rubbery starch and gluten in the dough, while response surface methods were used to optimize the biscuits’ strength via a central composite design. The product’s shelf life was determined based on microbial contamination levels. ANOVA test and Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference post hoc test were performed to assess the differences in physicochemical and biochemical properties. Citrus seed fiber influenced rubbery starch and gluten properties, causing significant differences (p < 0.05) in fracturability, total dietary fiber, and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity among the three samples. The biscuits enriched with citrus seed fiber contained flavonoid compounds and acylserotonin, with acyl-Nω-methylserotonin dominating in the C22 and C24 homologs. Despite varied evaluations in texture and aroma, the biscuits with citrus seed fiber were well-received for their taste and boasted an extended shelf life (> 12 months). Dietary fiber obtained from C. maxima seeds not only enhanced the nutritional value of the biscuits but also paved the way for innovative healthy food opportunities.

Accurate citrus fruit yield and estimation is of utmost importance for precise agricultural management. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote-sensing systems present a compelling solution to this problem. These systems capture remote-sensing imagery with both high temporal and spatial resolution, thus empowering farmers with valuable insights for better decisionmaking. This research assessed the potential application of UAV imagery combined with the YOLOv7 object detection model for the precise estimation of citrus yield. Images of citrus trees were captured in their natural field setting using a quadcopter-mounted UAV camera. Data augmentation techniques were applied to enhance the dataset diversity; the original YOLOv7 architecture and training parameters were modified to improve the model’s accuracy in detecting citrus fruits. The test results demonstrated commendable performance, with a precision of 96%, a recall of 100%, and an F1-score of 97.95%. The correlation between the fruit numbers recognized by the algorithm and the actual fruit numbers from 20 sample trees provided the coefficient R2 of 0.98. The strong positive correlation confirmed both the accuracy of the algorithm and the validity of the approach in identifying and quantifying citrus fruits on sample trees.

Wines are complex alcoholic beverages. Apart from alcohol, they also contain other compounds, including those that have a beneficial effect on human health. This paper features the basic physicochemical properties of four red grape varieties (Blatina, Vranac, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot) from the Mostar area, Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of wines made of these grape varieties. The wines were produced in a standard way; the results were observed during two consecutive seasons of 2020 and 2021. The physicochemical properties were analyzed by standard methods recommended by the International Organization of Vine and Wine. The study involved tests for total phenolics, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, as well as for antioxidant activity. The methodology included FRAP, DPPH, and ABTS assays. The antimicrobial activity was tested by agar dilution method, which made it possible to determine the minimum inhibitory and bactericidal values. The list of pathogenic and opportunistic bacteria consisted of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus cereus. Pathogenic yeasts were represented by Candida albicans. Lactobacillus plantarum and Saccharomyces boulardii were selected as probiotic cultures. The physicochemical characteristics of grapes, i.e. must, depended on the harvest year, variety, and their interaction. The best antioxidant effect and the highest total phenolic content belonged to the Vranac wine, vintage 2020. B. cereus appeared to be the most sensitive bacteria. The Blatina wines of both harvest years demonstrated the lowest antimicrobial and the antioxidant activities. Probiotic cultures proved to be resistant to the effects of wine. Pearson’s test revealed a reliable correlation between the antioxidant properties and the antimicrobial effect on B. cereus and, in one case, on S. aureus and P. aeruginosa. All grapevine varieties in this research proved to be suitable for the production of quality wines in the Mostar area.

Fish oil is highly susceptible to lipid oxidation, which leads to safety loss during storage. Natural antioxidants can prevent lipid oxidation. Satureja bachtiarica Bunge, also known as savory, is an endemic species plant that contains the necessary bioactive compounds and possesses antioxidant activity suitable for this purpose. This study featured the effects of savory extract and its essential oil as stabilizing agents on kilka fish oil. We assessed the oxidative stability of fish oil fortified with of savory extract and essential oil in amounts of 0.5 and 1%. Then we compared their oxidative activity with that of samples treated with a synthetic antioxidant during 35 days at 40°C. The fish oil samples were tested for antioxidant activity, acid degree value, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, para-anisidine value, conjugated dienoic acids, peroxide value, total oxidation value, and free fatty acids. Savory essential oil at the concentration of 1% was more effective than other samples in reducing the rate of lipid oxidation in fish oil. On storage day 35, the control sample yielded the following data: peroxide value = 14.79 mEq O2/kg, acid degree value = 32.49 mL/g, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances = 5.82 mg MDA/g, para-anisidine value = 116.03, total oxidation index = 136.27. These results were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those in the sample with 1 % savory essential oil: peroxide value = 9.52 mEq O2/kg, acid degree value = 22.41 mL/g, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances = 3.46 mg MDA/g, para-anisidine value = 78.3, and total oxidation index = 108.09. The fish oil samples contained more unsaturated fatty acids (66.76–68.83%) than saturated fatty acids (31.13–32.6%). Savory essential oil demonstrated good potential as an effective natural antioxidant that extends the shelf life of fish oil.

Over the past decade, the occurrence of milk-borne infections caused by Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) has adversely affected consumer health and the milk industry. We aimed to detect and genotype the strains of E. coli and S. Typhimurium isolated from cow and goat milks using two genotyping tools, BOX-PCR and ERIC-PCR. A total of 200 cow and goat milk samples were collected from the dairy farms in Southern Sarawak, Malaysia. First, E. coli and Salmonella spp. detected in the samples were characterized using PCRs to identify pathogenic strains, STEC and S. Typhimurium. Next, the bacterial strains were genotyped using ERIC-PCR and BOX-PCR to determine their genetic relatedness. Out of 200 raw milk samples, 46.5% tested positive for non-STEC, 39.5% showed the presence of S. Typhimurium, and 11% were positive for STEC. The two genotyping tools showed different discrimination indexes, with BOX-PCR exhibiting a higher index mean (0.991) compared to ERIC-PCR (0.937). This suggested that BOX-PCR had better discriminatory power for genotyping the bacteria. Our study provides information on the safety of milk sourced from dairy farms, underscoring the importance of regular inspections and surveillance at the farm level to minimize the risk of E. coli and Salmonella outbreaks from milk consumption.

This study explores the potential of utilizing quinoa protein as an egg substitute in bakery products for customers with health, culture/religion, or dietary restrictions. Quinoa protein was prepared from quinoa seed by alkaline solubilization followed by isoelectric precipitation and drying. Four different formulations of egg-free cakes were prepared by incorporating quinoa protein in egg equivalents of 50 g (Formulation 1), 75 g (Formulation 2), 100 g (Formulation 3), and 150 g (Formulation 4). The research involved Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and revealed such functional properties as proximate composition, physical properties, color, texture, microstructure, and sensory characteristics for the batters and the cakes. The incorporation of different quinoa protein concentrations significantly (p < 0.05) affected all the functional properties of the batters and the cakes. Such variables as crude protein and ash increased while moisture and fat contents decreased. The baking loss went down as the share of quinoa protein went up. The structural analysis showed an increase in gumminess and chewiness accompanied by a decrease in cohesiveness and elasticity. The analysis also revealed hardness and non-uniform changes. The lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) of the cake surface and crumb decreased while the redness (a*) increased. The cakes prepared according to Formulation 4 with the greatest share of quinoa protein had a high nutritional value with reasonable concentrations of essential amino acids in general and a high level of lysine in particular. The same sample also received the highest score for overall sensory properties. The sensory assessment proved that quinoa protein could meet consumer expectations of egg-free cakes.

The demand for freshly squeezed natural fruit juices has increased in recent years, however their shelf life is quite short. Thermal processes applied to extend the shelf life of such products and increase their storage stability cause significant losses in color and other sensory properties, depending on the temperature applied. Therefore, the preference for high-pressure homogenization as an alternative to thermal processes is on the rise. We aimed to determine effects of ultra-high-pressure homogenization and production stages on some quality properties of chicory root juice. Ultra-high-pressure homogenization was applied at the pressure levels of 0 (control), 50, 100, 150, and 200 MPA. The samples also included juice after homogenization with an ULTRA-TURRAX disperser and after a water bath. Ultra-high-pressure homogenization affected such quality characteristics of chicory root juice as total soluble solids (p < 0.01), pH (p < 0.01), L* (p < 0.01), a* (p < 0.01), b* (p < 0.01), a*/b* (p < 0.01), chroma (p < 0.01), hue angle (p < 0.01), and total color difference ΔE (p < 0.01). Higher levels of ultra-high-pressure homogenization pressure increased pH (p < 0.05), a* values (p < 0.05), and the a/b* ratio (p < 0.05) but reduced L* (p < 0.05), b* (p < 0.05), chroma (p < 0.05), and hue angle (p < 0.05) values of the juice samples. Thus, the use of ultra-high-pressure homogenization (100 and 200 MPa) contributed to improving the total soluble solids and redness values of chicory root juice. Our study showed that the ultra-high-pressure homogenization process improved the quality of chicory root juice.

This study aimed to investigate the physicochemical, rheological, and microbiological attributes of drinkable yogurts prepared with three distinct types of honey (flower, pine, and thyme) in amounts of 10 and 20% and probiotic cultures (Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium spp.). The control sample was brighter while the yogurt containing 20% pine honey was more yellow during storage (21 days). The samples’ serum separation quantities rose together with the honey ratio. All the honey-fortified drinkable yogurts were found to be non-Newtonian pseudoplastic liquids that are thixotropic. However, as the honey ratio increased, the apparent viscosity and consistency coefficients increased, too. After 21 days of storage, L. acidophilus and Bifidobacterium spp. counts rose to more than 5.0 log CFU/mL in the experimental yogurts containing honey (except for the sample with 20% flower honey). The panelists preferred the 10% honey-fortified drinkable yogurts over the others. The yogurts with flower honey were mostly favored, followed by pine and thyme honeys. Although honey contributed to the properties of drinkable yogurt, adding more than 10% of honey degraded the product’s quality and acceptability. In conclusion, 10% is an optimal amount for flower and pine honey, with a smaller amount recommended for thyme honey. More research is needed on honey-fortified drinkable yogurt for its commercial production.

Lycopene and other carotenoids have a significant added value in the food and cosmetic industries due to their nutraceutical properties and antioxidant activity. The extraction and stabilization of these compounds remain challenging due to their sensitivity to light, temperature fluctuations, and oxidation. This article introduces a sustainable method of extracting lycopene from tomato waste (Solanum lycopersicum L.) using layered double hydroxide nanoparticles to stabilize lycopene. We used tomato juice and lycopene as a positive control, while ZnAl was a negative control. The experimental samples included 75 and 100 mg of zinc salt per 1 mL of tomato juice, which were labeled as ZnAl75J and ZnAl100J. Zinc and aluminum salts developed insoluble hydroxides, which precipitated lycopene from tomato juice, thus forming composites. The composites proved to be efficient means of encapsulating lycopene as they recovered 97% lycopene present in tomato juice. The physicochemical properties of the organic material enhanced resistance to thermal degradation and acted as an extended-release antioxidant. ZnAl100J, which contained a lot of lycopene, inhibited 89% of DPPH• in 24 h and showed a value higher than IC50 for ABTS•+, which was 0.02 μg/mL of TEAC ABTS•+. ZnAl75J composites showed a higher protection against oxidation and a higher sun protection factor value (3.08) at 15% concentration. The composites could be used as an active ingredient in a wide range of formulations that require antioxidant and photosensitizing properties, or simply as encapsulators and carriers of lycopene.

Malnutrition is a global problem that is caused by insufficient sources of vitamins, microelements, and other nutrients. This creates a need for developing long-term preservation techniques. One of the solutions is to pre-treat food materials before freeze-drying by applying advanced and safe electrophysical techniques instead of traditional thermomechanical methods. We reviewed three of the most promising electrophysical techniques (low-temperature plasma, ultrasound, and pulsed electric field) which have proven effective for a wide range of food materials. In particular, we focused on their mechanism of action and the equipment required, drawing on successful laboratory and large-scale studies in Russia and abroad. The electrophysical techniques under review had an etching effect on the material, caused electroporation, and changed the material’s internal structure. In addition to these effects, we described their process and technology, as well as their advantages and disadvantages in industrial applications. Based on literature analysis, we stressed the importance of developing innovative electrophysical techniques for the food industry. These techniques should ensure high energy efficiency of the freeze-drying process and maintain good quality characteristics of food products.

Coriolosis aspera has been known as a medicinal mushroom commonly used in Vietnam, China, and certain regions in South Asia. It has many health-beneficial effects, namely anti-inflammatory, anti-cancerous, and anti-antioxidant. Despite these advantages, the rigid and durable cell walls of C. aspera pose challenges during chemical or mechanical extraction processes. We aimed to identify the optimal method for extracting bioactive compounds from C. aspera among hot-water extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound-assisted alkali extraction, and ultrasound-assisted liquid nitrogen extraction. Among these methods, a combination of liquid nitrogen treatment (with a material-to-nitrogen ratio of 1:6) and ultrasoundassisted extraction (15 min) proved to be the most effective. This method yielded the highest concentrations of polyphenols (4.69 ± 0.02 mg GAE/g dry weight), flavonoids (0.88 ± 0.01 mg QE/g dry weight), and triterpenoids (1.28 ± 0.01 mg OAE/g dry weight). Additionally, it exhibited a notable antioxidant activity of 3.48 ± 0.01 μg ascorbic acid /g dry weight. The scanning electron microscope images indicated that ultrasound-assisted liquid nitrogen extraction was the only method able to effectively disrupt the cell walls of C. aspera. Our study contributes to the potential application of C. aspera in developing functional foods. It emphasizes the importance of effective extraction techniques in discovering medicinal properties of the mushroom.

The wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) is the largest pigeon in Russia: an adult bird weighs max. 620 g. Its population in Central Ciscaucasia is quite numerous, which makes it a popular object of sports hunting. However, very little is known about its diet and feeding habits. This article describes the seasonal features of C. palumbus diet during the hunting season in the Stavropol Region, Russia. The study relied on the analysis of foods extracted from 66 crops and stomachs of wood pigeons killed by hunters or hit by road vehicles in various biotopes in 25 districts of the Stavropol Region. In the steppe areas, wood pigeons usually inhabit summer gardens, orchards, vineyards, and green belts along fields, roads, and railways. Wood pigeons are phytophages, which means they feed on plants. Their autumn diet includes sunflower seeds (17.98% occurrence rate, 19.68% total diet), corn grains (15.11 and 9.56%, respectively), wheat (14.39 and 9.98%), flax (6.47 and 10.4%), and millet (2.88 and 4.82%), as well as seeds of wild plants, e.g., wild vetch (7.19 and 3.14%), catchweed (5.75 and 6.25%), trailing bindweed (2.88 and 4.27%), etc. The wood pigeon inhabits all districts of the Stavropol Region, which makes it a promising game bird species. In addition to cultivated plants, e.g., wheat, sunflower, peas, and corn, wood pigeons feed on a wide range of weeds. The research results contribute to scientific data on C. palumbus as a game bird and cast light upon some of its feeding patterns.

Intensifying agricultural production involves an active use of agrochemicals, which results in disrupted ecological balance and poor product quality. To address this issue, we need to introduce biologized science-intensive technologies. Bacteria belonging to the genera Azotobacter and Pseudomonas have complex growth-stimulating properties and therefore can be used as a bioproduct to increase plant productivity. We aimed to create a growth-stimulating consortium based on the strains of the genera Azotobacter and Pseudomonas, as well as to select optimal cultivation parameters that provide the best synergistic effect. We studied strains Azotobacter chroococcum B-4148, Azotobacter vinelandii B-932, and Pseudomonas chlororaphis subsp. aurantiaca B-548, which were obtained from the National Bioresource Center “All-Russian Collection of Industrial Microorganisms” of Kurchatov Institute. All the test strains solubilized phosphates and produced ACC deaminase. They synthesized 0.98–1.33 mg/mL of gibberellic acid and produced 37.95–49.55% of siderophores. Their nitrogen-fixing capacity ranged from 49.23 to 151.22 μg/mL. The strain had high antagonistic activity against phytopathogens. In particular, A. chroococcum B-4148 and A. vinelandii B-932 inhibited the growth of Fusarium graminearum, Bipolaris sorokiniana, and Erwinia rhapontici, while P. chlororaphis subsp. aurantiaca B-548 exhibited antagonism against F. graminearum and B. sorokiniana. Since all the test strains were biologically compatible, they were used to create several consortia. The greatest synergistic effect was achieved by Consortium No. 6 that contained the strains B-4148, B-932, and B-548 in a ratio of 1:3:1. The optimal nutrient medium for this consortium contained 25.0 g/L of Luria-Bertani medium, 8.0 g/L molasses, 0.1 g/L magnesium sulfate heptahydrate, and 0.01 g/L of aqueous manganese sulfate. The optimal cultivation temperature was 28°C. The microbial consortium created in our study has high potential for application in agricultural practice. Further research will focus on its effect on the growth and development of plants, in particular cereal crops, under in vitro conditions and in field experiments.

Barnûf (Pluchea dioscoridis L.) is a wild plant that grows in Egypt. Barnûf leaves are utilized as a folk medicine, as well as part of food and drink formulations. Their numerous biological benefits include anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. We examined the antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antithyroid, and anticancer activities of methanol, ethanol, and acetone extracts of barnûf leaves. The methanol extract exhibited the highest total phenolic (241.50 ± 3.71 mg GAE/g extract) and flavonoid (256.18 ± 3.19 mg QE/g extract) contents. All three extracts proved to possess good antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antithyroid, and anticancer activities. Ellagic acid was the most abundant phenolic acid in the methanolic (30.33%) and ethanolic (24.71%) extracts. The antioxidant experiments revealed that the methanolic extract had potent DPPH• (IC50 = 18.21 μg/mL) and ABTS•+ (IC50 = 17.6 μg/mL) scavenging properties. The acetone extract demonstrated the highest antimicrobial activity against gramnegative bacteria. Regarding α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition, the methanolic extract showed the most potent activity with IC50 values of 104.28 ± 1.97 and 133.76 ± 2.09 μg/mL, respectively. The methanolic extract also proved to be the strongest inhibitor of lipase and thyroid peroxidase, with IC50 values of 127.35 and 211.2 μg/mL, respectively. In addition, the methanolic extract showed the strongest anticancer activity against MCF7-1 and H1299-1 lines with IC50 values of 29.3 and 18.4 μg/mL, respectively. The findings suggest that barnûf leaf extracts could be used in functional foods and pharmaceuticals.

The increasing variability of phenotypic traits in agricultural animal species makes it necessary to search for reliable DNA markers. Due to the poor efficiency of using clustered single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) and individual genomic elements, the hierarchy of gene regulatory networks has become a relevant research area. We summarized available information on different levels of epigenetic regulation, from the linear DNA sequence and its secondary and tertiary structures to the factors outside the cell nucleus, i.e., intercellular contacts and interactions with the extracellular matrix. We also discussed the features of genomic distribution and the role of topologically associated domains (TADs), and architectural protein CTCF in chromatin loop formation. CTCF mediates protein-protein interactions and interacts with various RNA variants. It also involved in epigenetic modifications of the DNA nucleotide sequence, a target of CTCF binding. Such targeted sites are located in transposable elements (TEs). As a result of the evolutionary conservation, they are also to be found in TAD, regardless of the fact that they are delivered by species-specific TEs. CTCF and its binding sites are known to affect the structure of the mitotic spindle. They also have a certain impact on cholesterol biosynthesis, which affects the plasma membrane and cell migration. CTCF indirectly participates in the variability of intercellular contacts and interactions with the extracellular matrix. In animals, CTCF and its binding targets are involved in all levels of gene regulatory networks that maintain or change genomic expression.