Abstract

Khainak milk is a traditional source of nutrition for people living in the highlands of Kyrgyzstan. It is consumed both in its natural form and in the form of butter, cheese, and cottage cheese. We aimed to determine the composition of fatty acids in khainak milk, as well as its seasonal changes, since such data is lacking in literature.
Fatty acids were determined by gas chromatography qualitatively and quantitatively in the milk from five lactating khainaks farm-bred in the Issyk-Kul region. The milk samples were collected and analyzed in the spring, summer, autumn, and winter seasons over three years (2019, 2020, and 2021).
Kyrgyz khainak milk fat was mostly represented by saturated fatty acids, with a maximum content of 73.10 ± 2.19 g/100 g in winter. C14:0, C16:0, and C18:0 dominated in their composition, exceeding 5 g/100 g, with C16:0 (palmitic acid) reaching almost 35 g/100 g in winter. The flora of mountain pastures favorably contributed to monounsaturated fatty acids in khainak milk, especially oleic acid, whose content reached 26.85 ± 0.81 g/100 g in spring and then gradually declined to 18.90 ± 0.56 g/100 g, following changes in vegetation. Polyunsaturated fatty acids were found in small quantities varying from 3.25 ± 0.09 g/100 g in winter to 4.28 ± 0.12 g/100 g in summer.
The seasonal changes in the fatty acid profile of Kyrgyz khainak milk are most likely due to differences in the animals’ diet. Our data can be used to optimize the process parameters for the production of full-fat products from khainak milk (cheese, butter, sour cream, etc.).

Keywords

Milk, khainak, season, fatty acids, saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, gas chromatography

FUNDING

This study was funded by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Kyrgyz Republic (grant No. 007652) and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in Kyrgyzstan.

REFERENCES

1. Shah MK, Anzai H, Nakajima M, Sakai T, Kumagai H. Study on production strategy and grazing system of yak in Mustang of Nepal. Nepalese Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2019;18:71–78.
2. Joshi S, Shrestha L, Bisht N, Wu N, Ismail M, Dorji T, et al. Ethnic and cultural diversity amongst yak herding communities in the asian highlands. Sustainability. 2020;12(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12030957
3. Asykulov T. Yak breeding – way to preserve wildlife habitat. Izvestiya Vysshih Uchebnyh Zavedeniy Kyrgyzstana. 2016;(11–1):103–106. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/WWXANT
4. Wiener G, Han J, Long R. Yak. In: Ullrey DE, Baer CK, Pond WG, editors. Encyclopedia of animal science. Second edition. CRC Press; 2011. pp. 1121–1124.
5. Elemanova RSh. Seasonal changes in the protein composition of khainak milk. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2022;52(3):555–569. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.21603/2074-9414-2022-3-2381
6. Nikkhah A. Science of camel and yak milks: Human nutrition and health perspectives. Food and Nutrition Sciences. 2011;2(6):667–673. https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2011.26092
7. Luo J, Huang Z, Liu H, Zhang Y, Ren F. Yak milk fat globules from the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau: Membrane lipid composition and morphological properties. Food Chemistry. 2018;245:731–737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.12.001
8. Niayale R, Cui Y, Adzitey F. Male hybrid sterility in the cattle-yak and other bovines: A review. Biology of Reproduction. 2021;104(3):495–507. https://doi.org/10.1093/biolre/ioaa207
9. Wang N, Vandepitte W, Wu JC. Crossbreeding yak (Bos grunniens) and yellow cattle (Bos taurus): Simulation of a rotational system and estimation of crossbreeding means and heterosis effects. Journal of Applied Animal Research. 1994;6(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.1994.9706018
10. Li Y-C, Wang G-W, Xu S-R, Zhang X-N, Yang Q-E. The expression of histone methyltransferases and distribution of selected histone methylations in testes of yak and cattle-yak hybrid. Theriogenology. 2020;144:164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2020.01.001
11. Faccia M, D’Alessandro AG, Summer A, Hailu Y. Milk products from minor dairy species: A review. Animals. 2020;10(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081260
12. Agyare AN, Liang Q. Nutrition of yak milk fat – Focusing on milk fat globule membrane and fatty acids. Journal of Functional Foods. 2021;83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2021.104404
13. Singh TP, Arora S, Sarkar M. Yak milk and milk products: Functional, bioactive constituents and therapeutic potential. International Dairy Journal. 2023;142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2023.105637
14. Guha S, Sharma H, Deshwal GK, Rao PS. A comprehensive review on bioactive peptides derived from milk and milk products of minor dairy species. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition. 2021;3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-020-00045-7
15. Liu HN, Ren FZ, Jiang L, Ma ZL, Qiao HJ, Zeng SS, et al. Short communication: Fatty acid profile of yak milk from the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in different seasons and for different parities. Journal of Dairy Science. 2011;94(4):1724–1731. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2010-3749
16. Shi B, Jiang Y, Chen Y, Zhao Z, Zhou H, Luo Y, et al. Variation in the fatty acid synthase gene (FASN) and its association with milk traits in gannan yaks. Animals. 2019;9(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9090613
17. Sha Y, Hu J, Shi B, Dingkao R, Wang J, Li S, et al. Supplementary feeding of cattle-yak in the cold season alters rumen microbes, volatile fatty acids, and expression of SGLT1 in the rumen epithelium. PeerJ. 2021;9. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11048
18. Alamanov SK, Fomina TV, Akhmedov SM, Bakirova ChB, Satarov SS. The slopes landscapes of the Issyk-Kul region. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic. 2019;(3):128–133. (In Russ.).
19. Fan Q, Wanapat M, Hou F. Chemical composition of milk and rumen microbiome diversity of yak, impacting by herbage grown at different phenological periods on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Animals. 2020;10(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10061030
20. Bär C, Sutter M, Kopp C, Neuhaus P, Portmann R, Egger L, et al. Impact of herbage proportion, animal breed, lactation stage and season on the fatty acid and protein composition of milk. International Dairy Journal. 2020;109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104785
21. Radonjic D, Djordjevic N, Markovic B, Markovic M, Stesevic D, Dajic-Stevanovic Z. Effect of phenological phase of dry grazing pasture on fatty acid composition of cows’ milk. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research. 2019;79(2):278–287. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-58392019000200278
22. Ding L, Wang Y, Kreuzer M, Guo X, Mi J, Gou Y, et al. Seasonal variations in the fatty acid profile of milk from yaks grazing on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau. Journal of Dairy Research. 2013;80(4):410–417. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022029913000496
23. Saroj, Malla BA, Tran LV, Sharma AN, Kumar S, Tyagi AK. Seasonal variation in fatty acid profile in the milk of different species under popularly followed feeding system in India. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 2017;87(4):484–489. https://doi.org/10.56093/ijans.v87i4.69609
24. Marquardt S, Barsila SR, Amelchanka SL, Devkota NR, Kreuzer M, Leiber F. Fatty acid profile of ghee derived from two genotypes (cattle–yak vs yak) grazing different alpine Himalayan pasture sites. Animal Production Science. 2016;58(2):358–368. https://doi.org/10.1071/AN16111
25. Teng F, Wang P, Yang L, Ma Y, Day L. Quantification of fatty acids in human, cow, buffalo, goat, yak, and camel milk using an improved one-step GC-FID method. Food Analytical Methods. 2017;10:2881–2891. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-017-0852-z
26. Gómez-Cortés P, Juárez M, de la Fuente MA. Milk fatty acids and potential health benefits: An updated vision. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2018;81:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.08.014
27. Agyare AN, Liang Q. Nutrition of yak milk fat – Focusing on milk fat globule membrane and fatty acids. Journal of Functional Foods. 2021;83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2021.104404
28. Chang YH, Jeong CH, Cheng WN, Choi Y, Shin DM, Lee S, et al. Quality characteristics of yogurts fermented with short-chain fatty acid-producing probiotics and their effects on mucin production and probiotic adhesion onto human colon epithelial cells. Journal of Dairy Science. 2021;104(7):7415–7425. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2020-19820
29. Gill PA, van Zelm MC, Muir JG, Gibson PR. Review article: Short chain fatty acids as potential therapeutic agents in human gastrointestinal and inflammatory disorders. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 2018;48(1):15–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.14689
30. Tungland B. Short-chain fatty acid production and functional aspects on host metabolism. In: Tungland B, editor. Human microbiota in health and disease. From pathogenesis to therapy. Academic Press; 2018. pp. 37–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814649-1.00002-8
31. Șanta A, Mierlita D, Socol C, Daraban S. A review of the effects of different feeding regimes of cows on milk fatty acids profile and antioxidant capacity. Bulletin of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca. Animal Science and Biotechnologies. 2021;78(2).
32. Barsila SR, Devkota NR, Kreuzer M, Marquardt S. Effects of different stocking densities on performance and activity of cattle × yak hybrids along a transhumance route in the Eastern Himalaya. SpringerPlus. 2015;4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-015-1175-4
33. Tomaszewski N, He X, Solomon V, Lee M, Mack WJ, Quinn JF, et al. Effect of APOE genotype on plasma docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid, arachidonic acid, and hippocampal volume in the alzheimer’s disease cooperative study-sponsored DHA clinical trial. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease. 2020;74:975–990.
34. Bhattacharjee B, Pal PK, Chattopadhyay A, Bandyopadhyay D. Oleic acid protects against cadmium induced cardiac and hepatic tissue injury in male Wistar rats: A mechanistic study. Life Sciences. 2020;244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117324
35. Liang K, Zhao Y, Han J, Liu P, Qiu J, Zhu D, et al. Fatty acid composition, vitamin A content and oxidative stability of milk in China. Journal of Applied Animal Research. 2018;46(1):566–571. https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.2017.1360186
36. Saini RK, Keum Y-S. Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Dietary sources, metabolism, and significance – A review. Life Sciences. 2018;203:255–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2018.04.049
37. Djuricic I, Calder PC. Beneficial outcomes of omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on human health: An update for 2021. Nutrients. 2021;13(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13072421
38. Wang J, Han L, Wang D, Li P, Shahidi F. Conjugated fatty acids in muscle food products and their potential health benefits: A review. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2020;68(47):13530–13540. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.0c05759
39. Ortega-Anaya J, Jiménez-Flores R. Symposium review: The relevance of bovine milk phospholipids in human nutrition – Evidence of the effect on infant gut and brain development. Journal of Dairy Science. 2019;102(3):2738–2748. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2018-15342
40. Li S, Xu L, Qing J, Wu X, Li H, Chen H, et al. Multiple biological activities and biosynthesis mechanisms of specific conjugated linoleic acid isomers and analytical methods for prospective application. Food Chemistry. 2022;409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.135257
41. Czumaj A, Śledziński T. Biological role of unsaturated fatty acid desaturases in health and disease. Nutrients. 2020;12(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020356
42. Rodriguez D, Lavie CJ, Elagizi A, Milani RV. Update on omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on cardiovascular health. Nutrients. 2022;14(23). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14235146
43. Sarojnalini Ch, Hei A. Fish as an important functional food for quality life. In: Lagouri V, editor. Functional foods. IntechOpen; 2019. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81947
44. Or-Rashid MM, Odongo NE, Subedi B, Karki P, McBride BW. Fatty acid composition of yak (Bos grunniens) cheese including conjugated linoleic acid and trans-18:1 fatty acids. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2008;56(5):1654–1660.
45. Du M, Jin J, Wu G, Jin Q, Wang X. Metabolic, structure-activity characteristics of conjugated linolenic acids and their mediated health benefits. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2023.
46. Moatsou G, Sakkas L. Sheep milk components: Focus on Nutritional advantages and biofunctional potential. Small Ruminant Research. 2019;180:86–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2019.07.009
47. Chen PB, Park Y. Conjugated linoleic acid in human health: Effects on weight control. In: Watson RR, editor. Nutrition in the prevention and treatment of abdominal obesity. Academic Press; 2019. pp. 355–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816093-0.00025-2
48. den Hartigh LJ. Conjugated linoleic acid effects on cancer, obesity, and atherosclerosis: A review of pre-clinical and human trials with current perspectives. Nutrients. 2019;11(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020370
49. Polidori P, Vincenzetti S, Pucciarelli S, Polzonetti V. CLAs in animal source foods: Healthy benefits for consumers. In: Merillon J-M, Ramawat KG, editors. Cham: Springer; 2018. pp. 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54528-8_51-1
50. Coppa M, Chassaing C, Sibra C, Cornu A, Verbič J, Golecký J, et al. Forage system is the key driver of mountain milk specificity. Journal of Dairy Science. 2019;102(11):10483–10499. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-16726
51. Baumgard LH, Corl BA, Dwyer D, Saebø A, Bauman DE. Identification of the conjugated linoleic acid isomer that inhibits milk fat synthesis. American Journal of Physiology – Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 2000;278(1):R179–R184.
52. Cifuni GF, Claps S, Signorelli F, Di Francia A, Di Napoli MA. Fatty acid and terpenoid profile: A signature of mountain milk. International Dairy Journal. 2021;127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2021.105301
53. Fleming JA, Kris-Etherton PM. The evidence for α-linolenic acid and cardiovascular disease benefits: Comparisons with eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Advances in Nutrition. 2014;5(6):863S–876S. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.114.005850
54. Marangoni F, Agostoni C, Borghi C, Catapano AL, Cena H, Ghiselli A, et al. Dietary linoleic acid and human health: Focus on cardiovascular and cardiometabolic effects. Atherosclerosis. 2020;292:90–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2019.11.018
55. Tallima H, El Ridi R. Arachidonic acid: Physiological roles and potential health benefits – A review. Journal of Advanced Research. 2018;11:33–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2017.11.004
56. Van Dael P. Role of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human nutrition and health: Review of recent studies and recommendations. Nutrition Research and Practice. 2021;15(2):137–159. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2021.15.2.137
57. Jing B, Chen W, Wang M, Mao X, Chen J, Yu X. Traditional Tibetan ghee: Physicochemical characteristics and fatty acid composition. Journal of Oleo Science. 2019;68(9):827–835. https://doi.org/10.5650/jos.ess19031
58. Lopez A, Bellagamba F, Savoini G, Moretti VM, Cattaneo D. Characterization of fat quality in cow milk from alpine farms as influenced by seasonal variations of diets. Animals. 2022;12(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12040515
59. Addis M, Cabiddu A, Pinna G, Decandia M, Piredda G, Pirisi A, et al. Milk and cheese fatty acid composition in sheep fed mediterranean forages with reference to conjugated linoleic acid cis-9, trans-11. Journal of Dairy Science. 2005;88(10):3443–3454. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(05)73028-9